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TOEFL ITP Preparation - Paket 13
TOEFL-ITP
TOEFL ITP - Reading Comprehension
94. Read the following passage, then answer the question below.
The Norse seafarers who crossed the North Atlantic around the year 1000 had no compass, no charts, and no instruments that we would recognize today. Yet they reached Iceland, Greenland, and, briefly, North America in open ships. Historians have long wondered how they found their way. The answer seems to be that they relied on a combination of methods, none of them reliable alone.
The basic technique was what sailors call dead reckoning: estimating position from speed, direction, and time elapsed. Direction came mainly from the sun by day and from the Pole Star by night, but in the far north the sky is often covered by cloud, and in midsummer the nights are too bright for stars. For such conditions, the sagas mention a 'sunstone.' Some scholars propose that this was a crystal, such as Iceland spar, which can reveal the direction of the sun by the way it polarizes light, even through thin cloud. The evidence for the sunstone is circumstantial, and no one has proved that sailors used it.
Closer to land, the navigators read natural signs. The flight paths of seabirds at dusk indicated where land lay, and the color of the water changed near shores. Banks of cloud that gathered over mountains were visible long before the land itself. Sailors also followed a single line of latitude, steering west along a known height of the Pole Star until they sighted the coast. This method would not have found a particular harbor, but it was enough to find a continent. A 2021 study of tree rings showed that Norse people were cutting wood in Newfoundland in the year 1021, which fixes a date for one of the first crossings.
The phrase 'such conditions' in paragraph 2 refers to
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